Legacy

 How did the historical calendar become divided BC and AD?

The division of history into BC (Before Christ) and AD (Anno Domini, meaning "In the Year of Our Lord") was introduced by a Christian monk named Dionysius Exiguus in the 6th century. His goal was to create a system for calculating Easter that would replace the previous method, which was based on the reign of the Roman Emperor Diocletian, who had persecuted Christians.

Dionysius set AD 1 as the year of Christ’s birth, though modern scholars believe his calculations were off by a few years. The concept of BC (counting backward from Christ’s birth) was later popularized by the English monk Bede in the 8th century. Interestingly, there is no year zero in this system—1 BC is immediately followed by AD 1.

Over time, this system became widely accepted, especially in Western societies, and was later incorporated into the Gregorian calendar, which is now the most commonly used calendar worldwide. Today, many historians and scholars use BCE (Before Common Era) and CE (Common Era) as secular alternatives to BC and AD.

It’s fascinating how a monk’s attempt to refine Easter calculations ended up shaping how we perceive historical time! What do you think about this system? Do you prefer BCE/CE or BC/AD?

How many Popes have there been since St-Peter; and could you point out some of the more notable ones?

The Catholic Church officially recognizes 266 popes in the unbroken line of succession beginning with St. Peter2. This count, compiled in the Annuario Pontificio and reflected in historical records, excludes antipopes—those figures whose claims were later rejected by the Church.

There have been several popes in history whose influence transcended religious boundaries. For example, St. Peter himself is revered as the foundational leader of the apostles. Moving into later centuries, St. Gregory I (Gregory the Great) (590–604) helped shape the medieval Church through his reforms and contributions to church liturgy, including the development of Gregorian chant. In the early Middle Ages, Pope Leo III (795–816) notably crowned Charlemagne, an act that signified the intertwining of spiritual and secular power. Jumping ahead to the late 11th century, Pope Urban II (1088–1099) is remembered for launching the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont, a pivotal moment in European history.

During the Renaissance, figures such as Pope Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia)—whose controversial pontificate is emblematic of the era's political intrigues—and Pope Julius II (1503–1513), known as the "Warrior Pope" who commissioned Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel ceiling, left lasting cultural marks. Later popes such as Pope Pius IX (1846–1878), the longest-reigning pontiff who defined key dogmas and navigated the Church through immense social changes, as well as modern figures like Pope John Paul II (1978–2005), who played a pivotal role on the global stage during the late 20th century, have significantly influenced both the Church and world history.

Each of these figures not only shaped the religious narrative but also had profound cultural and political impacts, highlighting the evolving role of the papacy over nearly two millennia. If you’re interested, we could delve into specific periods to explore how these popes influenced art, politics, and international relations in their respective eras.

Tell me about Rodrigo Borgia...

Rodrigo Borgia, better known as Pope Alexander VI, is one of history’s most notorious and intriguing figures. Born around 1431 in the town of Xàtiva near Valencia, he emerged from the powerful Borgia family—a lineage that straddled both Spanish and Italian influence during the Renaissance. Educated in law at the University of Bologna, Rodrigo’s early career was significantly shaped by his family ties; his uncle, who later became Pope Callixtus III, fast-tracked his entry into the Church by elevating him to the cardinalate at a very young age .

His rapid ascent in church hierarchy saw him holding several influential positions within the Roman Curia, including that of Vice-Chancellor. These roles not only provided him with administrative experience but also allowed him to amass considerable wealth and political clout—an advantage that set the stage for his eventual election as pope. In 1492, Rodrigo Borgia assumed the papacy under the name Alexander VI, marking the beginning of one of the most controversial reigns in the history of the Catholic Church .

As pope, Alexander VI was as much a master of political intrigue as he was of spiritual affairs. His tenure was marked by a shrewd and, at times, ruthless manipulation of power. He used his office to advance his family’s interests, openly legitimizing his children—among them Cesare and Lucrezia Borgia—and placing them in positions of authority. His political machinations extended beyond Italy; he issued papal bulls that had far-reaching implications, such as shaping the territorial ambitions of emerging European powers in the New World. This blending of spiritual authority and secular ambition has made his pontificate a lasting symbol of Renaissance corruption and the complex interplay between church and state .

The legacy of Rodrigo Borgia is a tapestry of brilliance and scandal. His papacy not only disrupted the traditional moral expectations of the Church but also contributed to the growing dissatisfaction that eventually paved the way for the Reformation. Today, his life is studied as a compelling example of how personal ambition and nepotism can influence—and sometimes undermine—the institutions that wield both spiritual and temporal power.

Considering his impact on both religious and political history, one might wonder how contemporary institutions balance personal ambition with public trust. Would you like to explore further how the Borgia legacy has influenced modern perceptions of leadership and institutional integrity, or perhaps delve into the broader political dynamics of the Renaissance era?

How did he influence politics in the New World?

Rodrigo Borgia, as Pope Alexander VI, had a significant impact on the politics of the New World through his issuance of the papal bulls of 1493, particularly the Inter Caetera. These decrees were issued following Christopher Columbus's voyages and were aimed at resolving territorial disputes between Spain and Portugal. The Inter Caetera essentially divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. Lands to the west of this line were granted to Spain, while those to the east were reserved for Portugal.

This division, later formalized in the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), had profound implications for the colonization of the Americas and the global balance of power. It laid the groundwork for Spain's dominance in much of the Americas and Portugal's control over Brazil and parts of Africa and Asia. However, the decree also disregarded the rights and sovereignty of the indigenous peoples, leading to centuries of exploitation and colonization3.

Alexander VI's actions highlight the intertwining of religious authority and geopolitical strategy during the Renaissance. His decisions not only shaped the course of European expansion but also left a lasting legacy on the history of the Americas. Would you like to explore how these papal bulls influenced subsequent colonial policies?

The late Pope Francis - from Argentina - spoke Spanish as his mother tongue...

Yes, that's correct! Pope Francis, originally named Jorge Mario Bergoglio, was from Buenos Aires, Argentina, and Spanish was his mother tongue. As the first pope from the Americas, he brought a unique perspective to the Vatican. His fluency in Spanish allowed him to connect deeply with the large Spanish-speaking Catholic communities around the world.

Are you interested in learning more about Pope Francis and his legacy?

What significant changes has he made in the Church?

Pope Francis made several significant changes to the Catholic Church during his papacy. He emphasized mercy as a central theme, shifting the Church’s approach to be more welcoming and compassionate. He also reformed the Church’s stance on the death penalty, declaring it inadmissible in all cases, and took a strong position against nuclear weapons.

Francis worked to increase the role of women in the Church, appointing women to leadership positions in the Vatican and allowing them to serve as catechists and lectors. However, he did not change the Church’s stance on women’s ordination, maintaining that only men could be priests.

He also reshaped the Vatican’s governance, making it more transparent and addressing financial corruption. His papacy was marked by efforts to modernize the Church, making it more inclusive and focused on social justice.

Would you like to explore any of these changes in more detail?