How much money is Anthropic trying to raise with t | Shared Copilot Response
How much money is Anthropic trying to raise with t | Shared Copilot Response
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I DID IT! Got my computer back to working order. With the help of Gemini.
The last bit was frightening to me: cleaning those tiny metal connectors between
the keyboard and the computer; but it had to be done. Scrubbed away with 70%
alcohol on a cotton swab...
https://share.gemini.google/baaIKYNHGxE3
Had an awful day on the computer. It won't recognize the mouse, and the
keyboard doesn't work. Sorry!
I was asked how 'proof' is measured. It is a US notion, Canada uses Alcohol
By Volume. Below, with Gemini AI...
US Alcohol; how was 'proof' first defined and tested for. How is this done today??The measurement of alcohol "proof" has a fascinating history rooted in 16th-century tax collection and military necessity.
1. How 'Proof' Was First Defined and Tested
The Origins: The Gunpowder Test
In 16th-century England, governments sought a way to levy higher taxes on liquors with high alcohol content. To verify or "prove" the potency of a distilled spirit, tax collectors used gunpowder:
The Test: A pellet or pinch of gunpowder was soaked in the spirit.
The Result:
If the spirit had a high concentration of alcohol, the gunpowder would still ignite. This spirit was deemed "100 Proof" (or above proof).
If the water content was too high, the damp gunpowder would fail to ignite, proving the alcohol was diluted or "under proof".
Mathematically, gunpowder ignites in an alcohol-water mixture at approximately 57.15% Alcohol by Volume (ABV) at standard room temperature. Therefore, in the original British system, 100 Proof = 57.15% ABV.
2. Transition to Modern Standards in the U.S.
Because the gunpowder test was imprecise—varying with temperature, grain size, and humidity—governments eventually replaced it with scientific instruments, notably the hydrometer, which measures the specific gravity (density) of liquids.
When the United States established its own tax and measurement standard for spirits in the 19th century, it simplified the math:
Proof (US)=2×ABV (% requirement)
100 Proof (US) is defined strictly as a solution containing 50% ethanol by volume at
60 ∘ F (15.56 ∘C).
80 Proof = 40% ABV.
200 Proof = Pure, 100% ethanol (absolute alcohol).
3. How Alcohol Content Is Tested Today
Today, modern distilleries and regulatory agencies—such as the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) in the U.S.—measure alcohol concentration with extreme precision using specialized equipment rather than open flames.
Method Description
Digital Density Meters (Oscillating U-Tube) Industry Standard: These instruments measure the oscillation frequency of a sample tube filled with liquid. Because ethanol is less dense than water (0.789 g/cm vs. 1.00 g/cm), density directly yields the exact ABV/proof when temperature-corrected.
Precision Hydrometers & Thermometers Distillers submerge a calibrated glass hydrometer in a cylinder of spirits to measure liquid density, then cross-reference the temperature against official hydrometer conversion tables (TTB tables) to calculate proof at standard temperature.
Refractometry & NIR Spectroscopy Used in laboratory settings to analyze how light bends or absorbs when passing through a sample, quickly quantifying ethanol content without thermal destruction.
Current Labeling Regulations
In the United States, federal law requires liquor bottles to prominently state the Alcohol by Volume (ABV) percentage. While proof can still be listed on the label, it is optional and must be presented alongside or in conjunction with the mandatory ABV figure.
Copilot:
I accidentally bought 'lactose free' cream cheese. What's different about it?
Not much, really. Lactose-free cream cheese is essentially the same cream cheese, but the manufacturer has added the enzyme lactase, which breaks down the milk sugar (lactose) into simpler sugars before you eat it.
You may notice a few small differences:
Slightly sweeter taste: When lactose is split into glucose and galactose, the result tastes a bit sweeter, even though no sugar has been added.
Same texture: It should spread and cook almost identically to regular cream cheese.
Similar nutrition: Calories, fat, and protein are usually very close to the standard version.
Easier to digest for people who are lactose intolerant.
For someone who tolerates dairy normally, there's no drawback to eating it. You can use it on bagels, in cheesecake, dips, frosting, or cooking exactly as you would ordinary cream cheese.
So if you accidentally bought it, you've almost certainly not wasted your money. In fact, unless you compare them side by side, many people wouldn't notice much difference beyond a faint extra sweetness.
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Everclear; if I mix a shot of Everclear with water to make it 80% alcohol, is it safe to drink?
No. If you mean 80% alcohol by volume, that is not safe to drink as a shot. It is twice the concentration of ordinary 40% spirits and can cause rapid intoxication, alcohol poisoning, severe irritation, vomiting and choking.
There may be some confusion between 80% alcohol and 80 proof:
80% ABV = 160 proof, dangerously concentrated.
80 proof = 40% ABV, the usual strength of vodka or whisky.
A Canadian standard drink is about 43 mL of 40% spirits.
Adding water reduces the concentration, but does not remove any alcohol. For example, an ordinary 44 mL shot of 95% Everclear contains approximately 2.45 Canadian standard drinks, even after dilution. To dilute 95% Everclear to roughly 40% ABV, one part Everclear needs about 1.4 parts water, producing about 2.4 times the original volume. Do not drink the whole mixture as though it were one normal shot.
If you have already swallowed it and are very sleepy, confused, vomiting repeatedly, breathing slowly or irregularly, having a seizure, or difficult to wake, call 911 immediately and do not leave the person alone. In Québec, you can also contact the Centre antipoison du Québec at 1-800-463-5060.
What is 'proof'??
“Proof” is another way of stating how strong an alcoholic drink is.
On American bottles, the conversion is:
Proof = alcohol by volume (ABV) × 2
So:
80 proof = 40% alcohol
100 proof = 50% alcohol
151 proof = 75.5% alcohol
190 proof = 95% alcohol, which is the strongest common version of Everclear
Canada generally uses% alcohol by volume, rather than proof, but American spirits often display both.
So when you originally said“80% alcohol,” that meant 160 proof, not 80 proof. If you meant the strength of regular vodka or whisky, you meant 80 proof, or 40% alcohol
So alcohol (spirits) is sold as a solution in water...
Exactly. Drinking spirits are primarily a solution of ethyl alcohol, called ethanol, and water, usually with flavouring compounds as well.
For example, in 100 mL of 40% ABV vodka, there are approximately:
40 mL of ethanol
60 mL of water and small amounts of other substances
Distillation produces a more concentrated ethanol-water mixture. The distiller then commonly adds water to reduce it to the desired bottling strength. Adding water lowers the concentration, but the total quantity of ethanol remains unchanged.
That explains the terminology:
40% ABV means 40% of the drink’s volume is ethanol.
In the American system, that is 80 proof.
95% ABV Everclear is approximately 95% ethanol and 5% water.
Diluting it to 40% ABV makes it comparable in concentration to regular vodka, but a given amount of the original Everclear still contains the same total alcohol.
One small chemistry wrinkle: ethanol and water molecules pack together unusually closely, so their final volume is slightly less than the two starting volumes simply added together.
Never underestimate the Russians, and here it is question of human
longevity. Where does the notion that a human can normally aspire to
a life of 85 to 90 years come from!!??
https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-france-student-protests-macron-yellow-vest/
Copilot:
France; could the courts revoque a ban on protests ordered by the government?
Yes. In France, a government authority (usually a prefect, police prefect, or mayor) can ban a specific demonstration on public-order grounds, but that decision is subject to review by the administrative courts. If a court finds the ban is not justified, it can suspend or overturn it
France treats freedom of assembly and demonstration as an important liberty. Authorities may restrict a protest when they can show a serious risk to public order, safety, or security, but the restriction must be necessary and proportionate. A blanket or poorly justified ban is vulnerable to being struck down by the courts.
In fact, there was a recent example in Paris where police banned a pro-Palestinian demonstration, but an administrative court suspended the ban and allowed the rally to proceed, ruling that the authorities had not sufficiently demonstrated a threat to public order.
So if the French government were to ban protests, the courts would not simply defer automatically. The administrative judiciary would examine:
whether there was evidence of a genuine public-order risk,
whether less restrictive measures were available,
and whether the ban was proportionate to the threat.
In short: yes, French courts can and do revoke protest bans when they consider them unjustified.
The article you have open about the police union's lawsuit seems related to the handling of recent unrest. If you'd like, I can also explain the balance of powers between the French government, prefects, and administrative courts during periods of civil disorder.
